by Véronique Landry-Doucet
Introduction
Over the centuries, art has evolved in order to become
more and more realistic. With the arrival the art of filmmaking in 1895, the
artistic representation of realism was brought to a whole new level: live
action could now be seen on screen. Since the early days of cinema, film
theorists have tried to explain the significance as well as the numerous
possibilities of representing realism on screen. To support these thoughts, the
ideas of film theorists Dziga Vertov, André Bazin and Stuart Hall will be used
in this essay.
Soviet montage
and newsreels
Pre-contemporary film theory / historical context
Pre-contemporary film theorists have discussed the
different ways to approach the interpretation of realism on screen. When
thinking about pre-contemporary approaches, soviet montage and soviet
techniques are very important to the evolution of cinema. Dziga Vertov was an
important influence for soviet filmmaking as well as a creator of the newsreel
documentary style of filmmaking. His theoretical essay, Film Directors: a revolution, published in 1923, is important
because of its goal of presenting cinema and filmmaking as a revolutionary tool
for the world. As a matter of fact, Vertov wants to avoid any type of fictional
narrative because he believes that documentaries are a better and more useful
way of filmmaking as well as a better way to represent reality on screen (Vertov,
257). Consequently, documentary filmmaking will allow more people, either
individually or within a group, to create their own reality on film or their
own interpretation of what they see on screen.
Furthermore,
Soviet cinema mostly related to the new opportunities that filmmaking could
bring and new ways to explore the wonders of the world as it evolved with time.
In fact, editing and montage became an important element of Soviet cinema, which
then led to Vertov’s creation of the term “kino-eye” (or “cinema eye”), which
means “the documentary cinematic decoding of both the visible world and that
which is invisible to the naked eye (…)” (257).Hence, it is due to this
point-of-view that Vertov came to argue that the camera was a better version of
the human eye. For instance, a great example of the use of montage, although
presented a long time before soviet montage, is Eadweard Muybridge’s montage of
horse pictures, (1878), as seen in the picture and video below, that had for purpose to prove that all four legs of a
horse came off the ground while running, which accentuates the fact that the
camera can see things the human eye cannot.Therefore, this example, linked to Soviet montage
presents a pre-contemporary technique used to present realism on screen.
The camera better than the human eye = better
representation of reality
What became important in Soviet montage cinema is the
way reality could be perceived. This is emphasized in Dziga Vertov’s article Film Directors: a revolution because he
states that “cinema-perception” was important in order to bring the camera as a
cinema-eye tool. In other words, the camera is “(…) more perfect than the human
eye for fathoming the chaos of those visual phenomena which evoke spatial
dimension” (259). Actually, the way the images are constructed for cinema
brings a clearer and more artistically pleasing image of what one can see every
day. Hence, this kind of realistic filmmaking will bring forward a more
cinematic view of everyday life. For instance, Vertov explains that while the
camera can give multiple point-of-views regarding one or more events, the human
eye can only have one point-of-view. (257) In other words, the better the
camera is able to capture an image, the better one’s opinion of the world will
be. This is why he argues that the camera is better than the human eye.
Moreover,
“cinema-eye” can be related to the evolution of the camera since it can be at
more than one place at once because of the Soviet techniques of montage and
editing. In other words, the camera has the power to control what the spectator
will see by directing the eye to the image presented on the screen. A good
contemporary example of this can be seen in the film Million Dollar Baby (Clint Eastwood, 2004) during one of the
protagonist’s fight.
This is a good example of the way the camera directs
the spectators’ eyes because instead of having a point-of-view as if we are
sitting at the fight, the camera, and therefore the audience, is following the
movements of the boxers as well. In fact, the camera goes from high shots to
low shots as well as presenting the reaction of the audience attending the
fight. Consequently, although the spectator’s gaze is controlled by the camera,
it emphasizes the Soviet montage idea that because the camera can show multiple
point-of-views, realism is created in a stronger way on screen,
Finally, this sense of realism led to the use of
newsreel in Soviet cinema, which became a way to distinguish their documentary
style to other documentary styles around the world. The newsreel had for purpose
to present images in a more realist and clearer way to see and present what the
eye sees every day. Consequently, these few example help accentuate Vertov’s
statement that the camera is a better replacement for the human eye as well as
the best way to represent reality on screen.
From paintings
to cinema and the evolution of cinema
Although the representation of realism in cinema was
clearly present during the Soviet cinema as well as present in other art form a
long time before the arrival of cinema, it is during mid-twentieth century
(1940s) that realism became of more importance within cinema. Actually, it was
proven that cinema had “potential (…) to help rebuild national identity by
revealing to audiences the complex dynamics of everyday life” (Bazin, 309). In
fact, as did Vertov, André Bazin argued that a film’s purpose was to represent
reality as well as document world’s events instead of trying to construct these
events. Bazin’s two essays, The ontology
of the photographic image and The
Evolution of the Language of Cinema, both argue the goals of photographic
art as wanting to capture and preserve time by comparing fiction to real image
that the camera captures within a time and space.
The ontology of the photographic image
Using the title
of Bazin’s article for this section seems appropriate because realism went
through numerous stages over the years. In fact by “ontology”, Bazin refers to
going back to the core of the photographic image, from paintings to cinema,
where the camera presents a mechanical reproduction of reality that can be conserved
through times (309). Art, in general, has always been a movement towards
realism in order to get closer and closer to a realistic reproduction. Numerous
painters have tried to portray realism in their work, some being more
successful than others. Gustave Courbet is probably one of the most famous
realist painters because he was the creator of the realist movement. Courbet
thought that “(…) realist artist’s mission was the pursuit of truth, which
would help erase social contradictions and imbalances” (Gustave Courbert, par.2).
In fact, Courbet believed that realism’s goal was to present irregularities and
imperfections in the world and that is what he tried to portray in his
paintings. One of his most famous paintings is Burial at Ornans (1849-1850), which became the first painting of the realist
movement. This painting was not only based on the funeral of his great-uncle
but also, Courbet painted the actual people that were present at the funeral
because he thought that it brought forward the realist aspect of the event
within the painting. Consequently, although it contrasts with Soviet Montage,
Courbet’s ideas of realistic representation will often be present in cinema as
it evolves. Nevertheless, multiple film theorists have argued that cinema was the
closest art has been to reproducing reality; Bazin ends his essay by saying:
“(…) cinema is also a language” (314), which accentuate the idea that cinema is
a new and improved art form that help understand the meaning of reality.
Consequently, although it contrasts with Soviet
Montage, Courbet’s ideas of realistic representation will often be present in
cinema as it evolves. Nevertheless, multiple film theorists have argued that
cinema was the closest art has been to reproducing reality; Bazin ends his
essay by saying: “(…) cinema is also a language” (314), which accentuate the
idea that cinema is a new and improved art form that help understand the
meaning of reality.
The evolution of cinema as an art form
In this sequence, Welles not only uses long takes but
also, he uses deep focus. For example, when the camera zooms out from outside
into the house, we can still clearly see the young Charles Kane play in the
snow at the same time as the other characters are interacting inside; nothing
in the scene goes out of focus. This technique was used in order to connect the
action with the other visual elements of the scene, which could definitely help
the understanding of what was happening on screen as well as creating a sense
of reality with the images, which then accentuate realism on the screen.
Construction of
the meaning and interpretation of contemporary cinema
This last section discusses a more modern way reality
can be presented on screen. In fact, by using Stuart Hall’s article Encoding / Decoding as an example, it
not only presents how the audience understand what they see on the screen but
also, it helps understand the meaning of what is seen on screen by using the
terms “connotation” and “denotation”. Hall emphasizes the importance of the
audience’s understanding of what they see on screen because of the effects each
audience member’s personal beliefs and behaviors can have on their
comprehension or perception. When trying to decipher the meaning of what is
seen on screen, semiotic signs and codes can become important, especially
during the understanding of visual and verbal signs (Hall, 82) As a result,
these signs and codes can relate to how realism is portrayed on the screen.
Denotation / connotation
Denotation: “a direct specific meaning as distinct from an implied or associated
idea” (Merriam-Webster’s, 332)
Connotation: “the suggesting of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it
explicitly names or describes” (Merriam-Webster’s, 264)
Starting
with the idea of denotation of a sign, it simply means the actual meaning of
it. In other words, denotation has frequently been compared to realism because
of the truth in the sign’s meaning however, the fact that codes have somewhat
intervene in order to produce this sign, shows that reality was played with to
get this realist meaning. Conversely, connotation does not follow the literal
meaning of a sign but is mostly changeable depending on how the codes will
interfere with the sign or be interpreted by the person who is being
communicated that connoted message. In other words, connotation can bring
forward a certain sign in order to represent a specific meaning (82).
Furthermore, denotation and connotation are not physically visible to the human
eye however they are present in order to understand where “(…) ideologies and
discourses intersect.”(83) In fact, they are used as analytical tools to help
understand the meaning of the signs being used to portray what is being seen on
the screen. Therefore, by understanding the semiotic meaning of the image’s
signs, it can definitely help prove the fact that realism can be interpreted on
screen.
Compared to other forms of realist interpretation, the
use of denotation and connotation are mostly important in order to understand
how a meaning is constructed and presented on screen. By comprehending the
meaning of a text, the communication of it through its representation on screen
will be more successful and therefore, will become a main approach to construct
reality on screen (Chandler, par.2) Moreover, although they bring different
meaning to visual signs, they usually work better together because most signs
have more than one meaning. For instance, James Dean is a good example of an
actor who can work both at the denotative and connotative level. In fact, he is
a good example because he became a cultural icon very early on in his career as
well as a legendary figure in cinema after his tragic death at a young age.
James Dean is most famous for his role in Rebel
without a Cause (1955) and mostly known for playing misunderstood
characters seeking the approval of a father figure.
James Dean’s
image, as seen on the picture flyer for Rebel
Without a Cause, is denotative because it presents James Dean but it
is also connotative because it presents a character played by the actor as well
as the image of a rebel actor with whom numerous teenagers, at that time, could
relate because of his portrayal of a typical teenager. Furthermore, who was
seen on screen was physically James Dean however; there was more to his image
that went beyond what was being seen and consequently, it gives a realistic
aspect to the film when knowing these facts.
Conclusion
While some could argue that realism cannot be
represented on screen, Dziga Vertov, André Bazin and Stuart Hall have stated
different ways in which realism has made its way to the big screen. From
realist paintings to soviet montage and modern films, realism has found a way
to be interpreted in order to make the message it wants to convey clearer to
the spectators without taking away element of the spectacle that is cinema.
Further reading
Gustave Courbert - http://www.gustavecourbet.org/the-complete-works-1-48-3-1.html
Denotation, Connotation and Myth -http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem06.html
Encoding / Decoding - http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem08c.html
Works Cited
Bazin, André. “The Ontology of the Photographic Image;
The Evolution of the Language of Cinema.” Critical
Visions in Film Theory: Classic and Contemporary Readings. Ed.Timothy
Corrigan, Patricia White and Meta Mazaj. Bonston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2011.
309-325
Bordwell, David, and Kristin Thompson. Film Art: an Introduction. 8th
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Page 477
Chandler, Daniel. “Encoding / Decoding.” Semiotics for Beginners. Aberystwyth
University, 2009. Web. April 4, 2012
Gustave Courbet:
The Complete Works. 2002-2012, Web.
April 4, 2012.
Hall, Stuart. “Encoding / Decoding.” Critical Visions in Film Theory: Classic and
Contemporary Readings. Ed.Timothy Corrigan, Patricia White and Meta Mazaj.
Bonston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2011. 77-88
Vertov, Dziga. “Film Directors: A Revolution.” Critical Visions in Film Theory: Classic and
Contemporary Readings. Ed.Timothy Corrigan, Patricia White and Meta Mazaj.
Bonston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2011. 257-262
Filmography
Filmography
Citizen Kane. Dir. Welles, Orson. 1941
Million Dollar Baby. Dir. Eastwood, Clint. 2004
The Horse in Motion. Dir. Eadweard Muybridge. 1877
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